Loading...In response to a question about the problems posed to critical scholars by the Hebrew Bible I have so far provided two posts, one involving the surviving manuscripts (do we know what the authors originally said?) and the other with apparent discrepancies (where accounts appear to be at odds with one another). I will now provide a couple of posts dealing with the equally big problem that the Hebrew Bible narrates events that probably did not take place, at least as described. Today I will provide a chunk from my forthcoming book on the Bible about the exodus event under Moses, in which Moses led the children of Israel out from their slavery in Egypt and a great miracle transpired at the parting of the Sea of Reeds (traditionally called the Red Sea), where the children of Israel were allowed to cross on dry land before the waters rushed back destroying Pharaoh’s entire army (as narrated in Exodus 14). It’s an absolutely amazing, terrific story. But it does not appear to be historical. Here are some reasons why:
*********************************************************************************************************************
Exodus from a Historical Perspective
It has proved difficult for biblical scholars to establish when these events are to have taken place. The most common dating of the exodus event places it around 1250 BCE, both because the text indicates that the Israelites had been in Egypt for 430 years (which would coincide roughly with the narrative of Genesis, when Joseph would have gone to Egypt at the beginning of the 17th century BCE, according to the chronology we adopted there) and because of two other considerations.
FOR THE REST OF THIS POST, log in as a Member. Click here for membership options. If you don’t belong yet, JOIN!!!
That was very interesting…thank you Prof Ehrman. My favorite book of all time from the Unity Church library is “Finding Yourself in Transition” by Robert Brumet. The book gives a metaphysical interpretation of the exodus which I found extremely helpful during a time of great change in my life.
These threads on contradictions and problems with scripture are fascinating, but aren’t they of interest mainly to those who consider the Bible, particularly the King James version, inerrant? And that would be a small but noisy bunch of fundamentalists, who, if you look at them and their beliefs, are heretics?
If you look at the Christian Bible as a big picture of a bunch of stories trying to convey ideas, inerrancy isn’t a problem.
I am really looking forward to your take on how the Old Testament was included in Xtn scripture.
My sense is that people who think the Bible is inerrant would not be interested in these issues at all! 🙂
But they are of more importance than simply for the question of the inspiration of Scripture. They are also important because (a) they show us that these are literary texts, not historically accurate texts, and so need to be read for what they can tell us as literature (just like all other great literature) and (b) they can help us understand the historical development — the actual, historical development — of ancient Israel, when the texts are used critically. That matters for anyone interested in history, whether a Jew, Christian, or other.
One of my favorite NOVA episodes is “The Bible’s Buried Secrets,” in which the archaeology and texts are compared and Wm. Dever’s hypothesis is put forth that a small group of slaves escaped Egypt, adopted the Shasu God Yah as they travelled to Canaan, and that their story became the narrative for the Israelite historical identity of ex-Canaanites migrating to the hills from the city-states. Where does the mass of scholarship stand in relation to this group of ideas? There are also several fringe ideas about Moses actually being the heretic monotheist Pharoah Akenaten or his priest Osarseph which are popular with the black helicopter crowd-do you have any favorite nutball versions of biblical history?
I’m attracted to Dever’s views, as are many other scholars; but there are lots and lots of shcolars who find these views far too skeptical. As to the nutballs — I avoid them!
Dever is actually quite moderate compared to the minimalists!! I’ve always been perplexed by those who found him “too skeptical”. Those, unfortunately, would prefer to take the text at face value and assume that events happened as written — most of those scholars tend to dismiss the Documentary Hypothesis, don’t accept that some tale or another might have simply been an etiology, etc.
I favor Dever’s views as well — I’m persuaded that there was in fact a historical David and a lineage of monarchs, rather than the view of the minimalists who contend that much of that history was entirely fabricated during the exile. The OT minimalists would seem to have something in common with the Jesus Mythicists. I’d guess there is probably quite a bit of overlap between the two groups.
There was a fantastic (in my opinion!) program on NOVA on PBS a few years ago that discussed this very topic, that is to say, the origins of the Israelites in Egypt as well as associated topics such as the origins of Moses, time frame of the Exodus, origins of Yahweh, origins of the Israelites as a people in general as well as a few other things. As far as I can remember it was not a defense of any Biblical account and entirely scholarly as opposed to something you might find from Simcha Jacobovici (eg, that pile of garbage he produced a couple years ago on the Exodus). A couple of interesting topics discussed was the theory that the Israelites were originally just Canaanites who escaped or left Egypt and later invented the Exodus (or it developed from legend over time, can’t remember); and, the Egyptian origins of the Moses. The program, The Bible’s Buried Secrets, is free to view on the PBS web site: http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/ancient/bibles-buried-secrets.html. I hope it’s ok to post this external link. I figured PBS was probably safe 🙂
Just general reading of the Exodus story results in thinking that this story may by legend rather than history. How do so many live off manna for so long? Anyway, it’s good to have even more evidence, provided in this blog, to confirm that it is legendary. Thanks.
They make manna-cotti and bamanna bread….
How funny and clever!
Brilliant! Thanks for the laugh.
The late Siegfried H Horn agreed that 600,000 men plus an equal number of women and children which might include up to 2,500,000 was impossible. His solution to this was that the aleph which is translated as 1,000 could be translated as squads, companies, or some much smaller units. Therefore the Israelites coming coming out of Egypt would be far smaller in number.
If that were accurate how would that impact this discussion?
Interested in your thoughts.
Yes, it certainly would change things. I don’t know of any translators who thinks that’s what it means, but yes it would change things.
I’m confused. You say it was Menerptah’s grandfather, Pharaoh Seti I (1294-1279) who would have first enslaved the Israelites, and his son Seti’s son, Ramses II (1279-1213) who would have been the Pharaoh at the time of the exodus. How could this be if the Iarealites were enslaved for 400 some years?
Sorry — according to this theory they were in Egypt for 400 years, but were not enslaved the entire time.
Yeah, the logistics of this endeavor (especially also the food required) would have been crazy! lol
Also, how long would it have taken 2-3 million people to cross a more or less narrow straight through the Sea of Reeds? 😀
And why didn’t YHWH simply teleport them to the other side (or immediately into Israel)? Oh my, it’s so much fun to treat these ancient myths as ‘history’.
Hi Bart, a off key question if I can: You mentioned in a previous post that the earliest surviving texts we have of the NT Gospels date to around 300 CE, how about the letters of Paul? Whats the earliest copy we have and how are scholars convinced that 7 of the 13 letters are actaully written by Paul and authentic? Do we have several copies which have no differences in text? please advise,
thanks
Sam
The earliest surviving texts are from the second century. The earliest ms with chunks of Paul is P46, around 200 CE. The question of whether Paul wrote the letters or not is unrelated to the question of which manuscripts we have.
Also if Menerptah had laid waste to Israel near the end of the 13th century, were the Children of Israel not living there then? Isn’t this about the time Joshua was kicking butt all over the land of Canaan? And if I remember my history, this was near the end of the Bronze Age and the whole area had declined as traffic dropped off along the trade routes and the Egyptians were having trouble with the “sea people”.
Yes, that’s part of the point. The Menerptah stele calls into question the biblical accounts of what happened (under Joshua, e.g.), but it confirms that there was an Israel in the land.
the only decent evidence i think there for the exodus is the names. Moses and Aaron are Egyptian names Moses is from Raamses). Professor Christine Hayes from Yale talks about this on youtube. there are non magical explanations for this but it is interesting
Is there any truth to two things I read (somewhere) years ago?
1. The Egyptians didn’t have the institution of slavery – they conscripted their own people (doubtless not including the upper classes) to perform public works such as pyramid-building. Comparable to a military draft today. If Hebrews were being forced to participate, it wasn’t technically “slavery,” and Egyptians were being forced to do the same things.
2. The etymology of the word “Hebrew” indicates that it referred (originally, at least) to people who hired themselves out by the day.
By the way, I know the stories about Moses’ birth were cribbed from legends about at least one other Middle Eastern hero, though I’ve forgotten the name or names. I was surprised by your saying the majority of scholars don’t agree with you that the historicity of Moses is comparable to that of King Arthur.
I remember, a few years ago, its being amusing that two very different books/theories about Moses came out at the same time. One claimed the story of Moses and, I think, the entire Pentateuch, had been written – and understood, at the time – as fiction. By a female author. The other maintained the whole story was true, except for one teensy detail: Moses wasn’t really a Jew – he was the rightful Pharaoh!
1. I don’t know if that’s true or not. Last time I was in Egypt my tour guide, who seemed like a smart enough guy, told me that the pyramids were built by hired labor. I don’t know what the scholars say about it.
2. No, I don’t think that’s what the word Hebrew means.
I might add that the information that the offspring of Jacob could not have expanded to over 2.5 million in just a few generations is quite helpful and is a new idea/concept for me. Thanks
Your post is provocative (and historically accurate), I like it. I try to be even more provocative: can you tell us the name of some jewish scholars who agree on the fact that exodus never happened?
I’d suggest you read Silberman and Finkelstein, Unearthing the Bible.
Well, when talking of ‘New Testament scholars’ usually you don’t include archeologists… In any case you provided a good example of ‘minimalist approach’ from Jewish scholars (although not strictly scholars of Biblical texts).
There are archaeologists who work on first-century Palestine of course….
Of course. But usually you don’t include archaeologists in the list of NT scholars together with Sanders, Dunn, Meier, Wright, Allison, Ehrman, etc.
There are actually Jewish scholars among NT scholars (G. Vermes, Amy-Jill Levine, P. Fredriksen, etc.), so I wonder if “OT Jewish scholars” confirm the historical facts you’re exposing in these posts.
I’m not very familiar with OT studies, that’s why I’m asking. I know few names (Emmanuel Tov, Peter Schafer, D. Boyarin) but I’m not acquainted with such scholarship.
So, put aside archaeologists , do “OT Jewish scholars” confirm the historical facts you’re exposing in these posts?
Depends which scholar you ask! It’s like asking “what do Christian scholars” think. Some do agree, most do not….
I guess I like NT stuff better than the OT because the NT is something of a historical puzzle/ whereas the OT you pretty much have to say legend most of the time (unless you’re dating the Book of Daniel.)
Is the sense that the writers of the Pentateuch, and Exodus in general believed they were writing an accurate account of historical events. It seems that educated scribes would know that some of the “fact” they were writing were outlandish in light of the information on hand.
Also, do you think there’s a kernel of truth in the story of Exodus? Why would Hebrew writers would include a story in which they are descended from slaves if there is no truth in it? What would be the purpose of placing Joseph and his descendents in Egypt for 400 years in the first place if a lot of the Pentateuch is about affirmin Gods promise to Abraham of the land of Israel?
I doubt if anyone in antiquity had sources available to check the accuracy of the story — if such a thing would have even occurred to someone at the time. My sense is that there may have been one of the groups that eventually made up Israel that escaped from a plight in Egypt, and this led to some VERY BIG exaggerations about their past. I talk about this a bit in today’s post.
Here’s a quote from someone I admire and occasionally agree with : “[Bible stories] are important because (a) they show us that these are literary texts, not historically accurate texts, and so need to be read for what they can tell us as literature (just like all other great literature) and (b) they can help us understand the historical development — the actual, historical development — of ancient Israel, when the texts are used critically. That matters for anyone interested in history, whether a Jew, Christian, or other.” Amen to that!!! I would add that the mass enslavement of Jews (Habirus?) is also a literary fiction, as is the notion that there rescuer was a Jewish/Egyptian prince.
I think you mean “*very* occasionally agree with”…. 🙂
Not really, Bart. I agree with you more than you might think. It’s just my nature to focus on the things that are important to me along the historical road “less taken.” Capish? 🙂
The dating of the whole Exodus story to the 13th century is very unlikely from an archaeological point of view. Throughout the 13th century, the Hittites and the Egyptians vied for control of Canaan/Palestine/Retenu and were in and out, and back and forth repeatedly. There were Egyptian garrisons/temples in the Canaanite cities. (See Beth Shean – http://www.academia.edu/2579568/The_Egyptian_Garrison_Town_at_Beth_Shean) The Egyptian presence didn’t really end, at least at Beth Shean, until the reign of Rameses IV or later.
Merneptah’s stele (~1200 BCE) states that: “The princes are prostrate, saying “Mercy”; no one raises his head among the Nine Bows; desolation is for Tehenu; Hatti is pacified; plundered is the Canaan with every evil; carried off is Ashkelon; seized upon is Gezer; Yanoam is made as that which does not exist; Israel is laid waste, his seed is not; Hurru is become a widow for Egypt; all lands together they are pacified; everyone who was restless, he has been bound ….. ”
Doesn’t sound much like an area where Joshua would be free to “conquer” the land of Canaan to me. I guess the fundamentalists are going to have to rethink their dates.
Most fundamentalists actually give a different date. But archaeology is not kind to any date, I’m afraid.
Richard Elliott Friedman and some other scholars believe that only the tribe of Levi was in Egypt and brought Yahweh worship (perhaps acquired from Moses’ father-in-law Jethro–the Kenite hypothesis) to the El-worshiping Israelites. Exodus 6:2-3 claims that El and Yahweh were the same deity all along. Commending Friedman’s theory are his following points:
1) Some Levites–Moses, Hophni, et al.–have Egyptian names.
2) One of the oldest sources in the Bible, the Song of Deborah (Judges 9), makes no mention of Levi.
3) Another of the Bible’s oldest sources, the Song of the Sea (Exodus 15), does not mention the number of people involved in the Exodus. The great numbers, 603,550 men, for example, come from the later Priestly writer.
4) The Levites had no land inheritance, a fact consistent with their late arrival.
5) The Levites are associated with violence in four different sources (Exodus 32, Genesis 49, Deut. 33, Genesis 34), so they may have insisted on being the priestly caste and getting a tithe in lieu of land. Yahweh was then appropriated as the God of Israel and conflated with El.
The Song of Deborah is Judges 5, not 9. Dr. Ehrman, would you please correct this in my comment above.
Are you familiar with Rohl’s alternative chronology, and is there any merit to it? If not, what are the main problems? And thanks for the blog, it’s great.
I’m afraid I’m not.
There is a new book in the market on this topic by David Rohl.
http://www.amazon.com/Exodus-Myth-History-David-Rohl/dp/0986431028/
Eric Cline will be reviewing it it seems:
“Following Rohl’s illustrated presentation, archaeologist Eric Cline and epigrapher Christopher Rollston, both of the George Washington University, and Egyptologist Betsy Bryan of Johns Hopkins University will offer their critiques of Rohl’s findings and interpretations and suggest whether or not Rohl’s theory should impact the historicity of the Exodus story. Sparks may fly!”
http://www.biblicalarchaeology.org/exhibits-events/two-d-c-area-biblical-archaeology-events/
Dr Ehrman, how do you understand the following passage from Exodus 21:7
7 When a man sells his daughter as a slave, she shall not go out as the male slaves do. 8 IF she does not please her master, who designated her for himself, then he shall let her be redeemed; he shall have no right to sell her to a foreign people, since he has dealt unfairly with her.
if the slave is not treated unfairly, could she be sold off to foreigners ?
if the slave is pleasing to the master, could be be sold off?
since her status is that of a slave and not a free woman, then is it logical to assume that if things go right for the master and he sees worth in her, he can make a sale on her?
or does it mean that no sale is allowed regardless if she is treated fairly or unfairly?
If she’s not pleasing to her master, she can be bought out of slavery but not sold to foreigners. If she is pleasing, apparently she can be.
Hi Bart is it the consensus amongst mainstream historians and archaeologists that the Exodus and conquest are largely literary rather than historical?
There are huge debates. But I would say that the majority at least think that the accounts are wildly exaggerated. Others, like me, think they are so exaggerated as to have only a very small historical kernel.
What’s your perspective on the Ipuwer papyrus? I know a lot of fundamentalists and fringe historians try and link it to the plagues
I’m afraid it’s not ringing a bell.
Cool article Bart and let me also applaud you for making such a great case for a historical Jesus even though I find Christianity and it’s mind-numbing followers completely annoying.
Fair play to you.
Now, help me to put a few things to bed if you will?
Firstly, it is the widely held belief among the black community – of which I am a sceptical member – that the ancient ‘Israelites’ were black Africans.
I certainly do contend that the peoples of earlier Egyptian dynasties were what we call black today and, at least according to research carried out by author Graham Phillips, it is Thutmoses who is the real Moses whom was either exiled or who went walkabouts of his own volition.
Fine. Socio-political and theological differences may be perfectly plausible grounds for large-scale social upheavals back then but what I do not buy is the ‘12 Tribes’ narrative which has since been pegged onto the transatlantic slave trade.
Thus, we are members of the lost tribes..!
Reading your post on the exodus story, I notice that you too cite the ‘Israel is laid waste’ text purported to appear on the Merneptah stele which contradicts Prof. Joseph Davidovits submission that the early translation is erroneous. (see link)
https://www.davidovits.info/error-or-forgery-on-the-stele-of-merneptah-known-as-israel-stele/
If this can be proven as fact, it further strengthens the case for an exodus of inflated folklore and not fact regardless of who the ethnic group may have been.
And what say you of Egyptian Kings Psusennes and Saimun who may actually be Hebrew Kings of the conquering Hyksos tribes of the levant, namely King David and King Solomon of the Bible?
Are the Hyksos not depicted as pale-skinned peoples?
Reading your article of the exodus, I could not tell whether your mentions of slavery in Egypt referred to the biblical accounts or were factual? It was being touted following the writings of Herodotus that Sneferu had slaves but this has since been refuted but perhaps you’re aware of other rulers – perhaps from invading forces – who may have been okay with such practices?
Admittedly, I’ve yet to obtain a book of yours so you may have touched on some of this stuff already in previous writings..?
I don’t think Israel really was enslaved en masse in Egypt, no. I also don’t think the Canaanites from whom the Israelites eventually emerged were black Africans.
Thanks for your response Bart and no, I don’t think they were either. However, can you comment on Thutmoses and my question regarding the stele?
I”m having trouble finding your specific question about Thutmoses and the stele. Could you rephrase it? I’m afraid I probably won’t have a satisfying answer, as this is not an area of expertise for me.
I’m having trouble finding your specific question in our thread. Could you rephrase it for me? Since it’s not my area of expertise, I probably won’t be able to give a very helpful answer!
Ok so the question re: Thutmoses was to get your thoughts on the idea that he is in fact the real Moses. That he was later exiled would seem to form a – some might say – convenient precursor to the exodus story however with research connecting him to a staff now located in Birmingham museum, the idea gains credence.
Regarding the stele, there is contention around what it actually says. You quoted the commonly held narrative which led me to wonder whether you were aware of the contested view and if so, what your thoughts were because it potentially has significant bearing on future discussions of the ‘exodus’ which in certain circles has created a somewhat fetishised identity for people who think it fact.
Link below:
https://www.davidovits.info/error-or-forgery-on-the-stele-of-merneptah-known-as-israel-stele/
I’m not sure what you mean by “the real Moses.” Do you mean the model on which the later legends of Moses were built? That seems unlikely, since, well, the legends of Moses are radically different from the life of Thutmoses. I shouldn’t think that the fact that both of them used a staff would be particularly significant would it? (Any more than, say, they both wore sandals?) Maybe I’m missing the point! (But the fact that both have “moses” in their name is not probative either, since apparently that was fairly common in Egyptian names)
Cool Bart, for some reason the ‘reply’ button is missing from the last few comments you and I have exchanged. Yes, I supposed I am referring to the Moses ‘model’ as he is understood from a biblical standpoint and trying to connect that to the exodus narrative and what is being theorised about Thutmoses being the actual man. Graham Phillips thinks so and so I wanted to get your take on it.
The staff was not the focus.
Also, I wanted to get your thoughts on the potential misreading of the Merneptah stele which would say something along the lines of ‘Israel is alive and well’ if I were to paraphrase.
Yeah, I don’t think so. I’m afraid I don’t read hieroglyphic, so I don’t have an opinion on the stele.
Hey Bart, as another commenter pointed out, some Christians appeal that the thousands number actually means units, so the 600,000 number they say is idealized or not a literal number. It is said this is a common theme in the biblical literature for it to be non-literal and they cite Kevin Kitchen and James Hoffmeier to say that what is said is actually 600 tribes-families and not 600,000 people.
Sorry for the long comment, but what are your thoughts? Is this possible or just apologetic hope? Thanks again Dr, appreciate you!
It’s an apologetic hope. The numbers are given fairly precisely, to the person, of how many soldier-age men there were.