Page 14 – The Bart Ehrman Blog

The Book of Hebrews: Who Wrote It, When, and Why?

Now that I have discussed the overarching themes and emphases of the letter to the Hebrews, I can turn to the historical question of who actually wrote it, when, and why. ****************************** The authorship of the book has been debated for nearly as long as the book has been in circulation; and part of that question involves the issue of what kind of writing it actually is. Although Hebrews is normally labeled an epistle, this designation is not particularly apt. The book has an epistolary closing – where the author gives a final exhortation, gives some personal greetings, and signs off by wishing his readers the best (Heb 13:20–25). That is, it ends the way letters tend to end. But there is no epistolary prescript. That is, in the opening the author never names himself nor his addressees, he nor does he include an opening prayer, benediction, or thanksgiving on their behalf (check out Paul’s letters, which always begin that way). So is it really a “letter”? Scholars have long been [...]

BDEhrman2025-09-10T13:12:50-04:00July 23rd, 2025|Catholic Epistles, Public Forum|

The Letter to the Hebrews: In a Nutshell
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The Letter to the Hebrews: In a Nutshell

Catholic Epistles, Jews and Christians in Antiquity

The Letter to the Hebrews: In a Nutshell

I now return to my long “Nutshell” thread, explaining each book of the New Testament in brief terms, with one post laying out its major themes and emphases; another discussing what we can know about who wrote it, when, and why; another that provides suggestions for further reading; and at least one (and sometimes more) on other aspects of the book that are very much worth bearing in mind. Eventually we will collect all these and issue them together (in some format or other – to be decided). For now, if you want to check out earlier posts in the series, simply do a word search on the blog for “Nutshell.” We have finished the Gospels, Acts, and the Pauline epistles, and now move on to the “Catholic” or “General” epistles. In this context “catholic” does not refer to the Roman Catholic church (or any other “Catholic” church), but means simply “universal.” The idea, rightly or wrongly, is that rather than being addressed to a specific congregation, these books were written to be [...]

BDEhrman2025-09-10T13:12:50-04:00July 22nd, 2025|Catholic Epistles, Jews and Christians in Antiquity|

A Hiatus in My Responses

Dear Fellow Bloggers! I want to let you know that I will not be able to respond to comments this week (or a bit more: July 21-28). BUT, the blog itself will be going along swimmingly. I've queued up all the posts for the week , you can make all the comments you want as normal, Jen will be on top of all things as usual, and all else will be AOK, likely even thriving. I just won't be around and will not be able to respond to comments. So sorry! But, well, not totally. I'm off for the week on a meditation retreat -- not, as normally happens, with others but all by my lonesome, living the life of the anchorite. Kind of. I'll be in a reasonably remote place in a nice part of the world where I can meditate, read, hike, think deep thoughts, figure out my life (and all things of universal significance), recharge my depleted batteries, and hope they don't need to be replaced. I did something [...]

BDEhrman2025-09-10T13:12:52-04:00July 20th, 2025|Public Forum|

The Death of Peter

In my previous post I discussed the legendary account (the earliest we have) of the martyrdom of Paul. In it I mentioned as well the martyrdom of Peter (also legendary, though better known) (many people have heard he was crucified “upside-down”), and realized I may as well post on that as well, since I’ll certainly be getting some questions on it. Here is what I say about it in my book Peter, Paul, and Mary Magdalene (Oxford University Press). ****************************** By the end of the first and into the second century it was widely known among Christians that Peter had suffered a martyr’s death. The tradition is alluded to in the book of 1 Clement: “Because of unjust jealousy Peter bore up under hardships not just once or twice, but many times; and having thus borne his witness (or “having been martyred”) he went to the place of glory that he deserved” (5:4). And a hundred years later Tertullian speaks of Peter enduring “a passion like the Lord’s” -- possibly referring [...]

BDEhrman2025-09-10T13:12:36-04:00July 20th, 2025|Christian Apocrypha, Early Christian Writings (100-400 CE)|

The Death of Paul

I sometimes get asked (once just a few days ago) about what we can say about Paul's death. We don't have any historical records (i.e., historically reliable accounts), but there is one relatively early reference to it and an intriguing legend from about a century after the event, whenever and however it happened. Here is what I say about it in my book Peter, Paul, and Mary Magdalene. ****************************** The Martyrdom of Paul We do not have any contemporary accounts of Paul’s death, although traditions from several decades afterwards indicate that he was martyred. The earliest reference comes in the letter from the church of Rome to the church of Corinth known as 1 Clement, written around 95 CE, some thirty years after Paul’s death. This anonymous author refers to the “pillars” of the Christian faith who were persecuted for their faith, “even to death.” He refers especially to the apostles Peter and Paul. About Paul, he states: Because of jealousy and strife Paul pointed the way to the prize for endurance. [...]

BDEhrman2025-09-10T13:12:36-04:00July 19th, 2025|Paul and His Letters, Public Forum|

Some Readers’ Questions and Responses

Here are some of the intriguing questions I have recently received from blog members. The first one includes a reply to my response and my response to that reply. Enjoy! QUESTION: Have you considered the angle that Jesus may have been a revolutionary Essene? This would explain his outward orientation instead of inward. I mean he fits right in with being a disciple of John the Baptist and has a very Essene worldview. A good amount of his followers were also followers of John the Baptist. Most of the points he makes, eating with tax collectors and sinners, doing things on the Sabbath, not obsessing over ritual purity == all of these seems strangely specifically targeted towards the Essenes, which means he is very familiar and actively critiquing them. I am wondering if Jesus’ relation to the Essenes could be comparable what to Luther’s relation to Catholicism. As in Luther was a Catholic and started a revolution inside Catholicism. On the surface it doesn’t fit but if he’s a counterculture within [...]

BDEhrman2025-09-10T13:12:35-04:00July 17th, 2025|Reader’s Questions|

Unusual Fundraiser: Want to Read the Pre-Published Manuscript of my New Book?

I'm just about finished (finally) with a reasonably polished draft of my next book, The Origins of Altruism: How the Teachings of Jesus Transformed the Moral Conscience of the West. We have decided to turn the moment into a fund-raising opportunity for the blog. Unlike our other fundraisers, where we suggest an amount but accept whatever you can pay, for this one we are asking for set donation amounts for anyone who can and wants to participate. If you can't afford this, no fears! The book itself will eventually be published and you can read it to your heart's content. But if you want to see it in its prepublished state, make comments on it for me, and be acknowledged by name in the Preface (if you choose; this is not a requirement!), then this is the fundraiser for you! I will also be sending it out to colleagues in the field who are expert in one or another of the areas I cover in my discussions (there are a lot of them). But since it [...]

admin2025-07-16T17:50:57-04:00July 16th, 2025|Public Forum|

Explaining the Triumph of Christianity

The ancient triumph of Christianity proved to be the single greatest cultural transformation our world has ever seen. Without it the entire history of Late Antiquity would not have happened as it did. We would never have had the Middle Ages, the Reformation, the Renaissance, or modernity as we know it. There could never have been a Matthew Arnold. Or of any of the Victorian poets. Or of any of the other authors of our canon: no Milton, no Shakespeare, no Chaucer. We would have had none of our revered artists: Michelangelo, Leonardo, or Rembrandt. And none of our brilliant composers: Mozart, Handel, or Bach. To be sure, we would have had other Miltons, Michelanglos, and Mozarts in their place, and it is impossible to know whether these would have been better or worse. But they would have been incalculably different. By conquering the Roman world, and then the entire West, Christianity not only gave rise to a vast and awe-inspiring set of cultural artifacts, it also changed the way people look at the world [...]

admin2026-05-20T08:45:57-04:00July 16th, 2025|Public Forum|

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Diane2025-09-10T13:04:11-04:00July 16th, 2025|Public Forum|

Paul’s Letter to the Romans “At a Glance,” and Questions for Reflection

Now that I have finished this subthread on the letters of Paul in a nutshell, I'd like to provide brief summaries of the various Pauline writings (both "undisputed" and deutero-Pauline). These posts will be quick and to the point. In them I reproduce my overviews called "At a Glance" for each letter that I give in my textbook as the final bit of each discussion for each book, along with a couple of questions to reflect on. If the summaries don't make immediate sense and/or the questions don't seem to have an obvious question, I'd recommend rereading the relevant posts from a while back. In this post I deal the the letter to the Romans. Here are the previous posts, in case you need a reminder: https://ehrmanblog.org/pauls-letter-to-the-romans-in-a-nutshell/ https://ehrmanblog.org/the-letter-to-the-romans-who-when-and-why/ https://ehrmanblog.org/unusually-important-for-pauls-letter-to-the-romans-pauls-models-of-salvation/ ROMANS: AT A GLANCE Unlike Paul’s other surviving letters, Romans was written to a church he had not founded or even visited. It was written evidently to secure the support of the Roman Christians for Paul’s missionary endeavors farther west, in Spain. [...]

BDEhrman2025-09-10T13:12:35-04:00July 16th, 2025|Paul and His Letters|

The Transformation of Paul’s Teaching: The Apocalypse of Paul
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The Transformation of Paul’s Teaching: The Apocalypse of Paul

Afterlife, Early Christian Writings (100-400 CE), Paul and His Letters

The Transformation of Paul’s Teaching: The Apocalypse of Paul

In my previous post I began to discuss the non-canonical Apocalypse of Paul, a legendary tale that describes what Paul saw when he had his vision after being taken up to the “third heaven” (see 2 Corinthians 12:1-6). He was actually taken to see what was experienced by the dead in the afterlife. For some lucky souls, it was fantastic. For others, well … read on. He first sees two souls being taken to their eternal destiny, one is happy, and the other miserable. The one is carried by angels before the throne of God to be given an eternal reward; the other is dragged off by some very angry angels to face eternal damnation. Paul then is shown the actual places of bliss and torment. The bliss is amazing—a glorious utopian place of goodness, where Paul meets with the saints of the Jewish tradition and converses with them in paradise. The torment, on the other hand, is horrific. Here are all sorts of punishments arranged for all kinds of sinners, Christian and [...]

BDEhrman2025-09-10T13:12:35-04:00July 15th, 2025|Afterlife, Early Christian Writings (100-400 CE), Paul and His Letters|

Fundamentalist Apologists, Christian and Mythicist

As I’ve been reading in preparation for my course on July 19, “Did Jesus Really Exist” (a freebie! Check it out at https://courses.bartehrman.com/did-jesus-really-exist. ) another thought occurred to me, about the similarities between “mythicist” writers (those supporting the idea that Jesus of Nazareth never did exist) and conservative Christian apologists. They seem to have a lot in common, even though they take virtually the opposite views of things. I suppose I noticed that long ago but never delved much into it. But it was probably 15-20 years ago when I was struck by the fact that the mathematical principle, “Bayes’ Theorem” – which works to work out the probability of a cause based on the known effects, and which sure seems highly scientific (in the general sense), and in fact has been used to reach remarkable conclusions in a number of fields – has been applied by two scholars with respect to the historical Jesus: by Oxford philosopher Richard Swinburne, a deeply committed Christian, to demonstrate (on statistical probability) that Jesus was probably raised from [...]

BDEhrman2025-09-10T13:12:36-04:00July 13th, 2025|Bart's Debates|

Did Jesus Exist? Why I Don’t Enjoy Reading the Mythicists

I’ve been doing some reading in preparation for a two-lecture on-line course called “Did Jesus Really Exist” scheduled for July 19. You can find out about it here: https://courses.bartehrman.com/did-jesus-really-exist. It’s a freebie, so, well, feel free to get it for free! Even though I'm pumped to do this course, and I don’t really much enjoy reading about it (that is, reading the work books that argue Jesus did not exist). I once did, back when I wrote my book Did Jesus Exist. But unlike most issues I deal with, I don’t find it very interesting or intellectually challenging. Still it’s a topic that comes up a lot among lay people, especially over the past 20 years or so, and so I feel a need to address it, and will do so with vigor. In preparation, Ive been rereading some of the work of one of the leading spokespersons among the “mythicists." In this view, it’s not just that Jesus did not do and say a number of things recorded of him in [...]

BDEhrman2025-09-10T13:12:35-04:00July 12th, 2025|Historical Jesus, Mythicism, Public Forum|

July 2025 Gold Q&A

Gold & Platinum Members, As you know, one of your membership perks is the ability to submit your questions to Bart for him to answer in a live monthly Q&A. So...what's on your mind? Send in your questions at: [email protected] (Don’t ask them in the comments of this post – they won’t be included!) Remember, short, to-the-point questions will be given preference. We have limited time for Q&A, so do what you can to keep things concise. The July Q&A is scheduled for Sunday July 20th at 1pm EDT. Can't make it live? We've got you covered. We always record these sessions, and a link to the recording will be emailed out within a day or two. The deadline for your question submission is Thursday July 17th, at 11:59pm (whenever that happens to land for you). Zoom Link to join the Q&A on July 20th: https://us02web.zoom.us/j/82628640509?pwd=9Hrcgg0em1OrYd0z2q89hw29JiXoXQ.1 Hope to see you there!

jennao2025-09-10T13:12:49-04:00July 11th, 2025|Public Forum|

Submit Your Platinum Post Vote!

Platinum Members, It’s time once again to cast your vote. One of the great perks of Platinum membership is the chance to shape what the whole blog community reads. Below, you’ll find four thought-provoking guest posts written by fellow Platinum members. Read through, reflect, and choose the one you believe deserves the spotlight. The winning post will be featured on the public blog, reaching thousands of readers and sparking wider conversation. Your vote helps decide which voice gets heard next. To vote, make your selection below and click 'Vote'. Voting will be open through Thursday July 17th. Here are your four candidates (links below): Here are links to the posts, in case you want to refresh your memory--then vote! Materialism, Personal Identity, and Resurrection: Part 1 – Platinum Post by Dennis J. Folds, Ph.D. Did Jesus Have a Near-Death Experience? – Platinum Post by Douglas Wadeson MD Do We Have the Lord’s Supper All Wrong? Platinum Post by Douglas Wadeson MD The Death and Afterlife of Jesus: A Historical Reconstruction Part I – [...]

jennao2025-09-10T13:12:49-04:00July 11th, 2025|Public Forum|

Paul’s Vision of Heaven and Hell

I now turn to another non-canonical text connected with Paul, one of the most famous throughout the Middle Ages, an account of his journey to observe the fate of souls in the afterlife, both the glories of the saints in heaven and the torments of the sinners in hell. This tale is not simply meant to convey factual information about what happened to Paul once. It is intended to teach a clear lesson. Isn’t all interesting history like that? Here's how I discuss it in my book Peter, Paul, and Mary Magdalene (Oxford University Press). This will take two posts. The Apocalypse of Paul Is anyone ever interested in the past for purely antiquarian interests – that is, they just want to know what happened but for no other reason? Well, not usually. Most people think about the past because they are interested in the present. One of the ways that people who are interested in the present use history is by making the past itself present—that is, by making it relevant to [...]

BDEhrman2025-09-10T13:12:35-04:00July 10th, 2025|Afterlife, Early Christian Writings (100-400 CE), Paul and His Letters|

Chastity Within Marriage? Paul Taught THAT?

In my previous post I summarized the legendary account of Paul and his most famous female disciple Thecla, and ended by quoting the “gospel message” that he preaches in the tale. It’s not at all what you would expect. He says no word about believing in Christ’s death and resurrection. It is all about remaining sexually chaste, even when married. No sex. That’s what God is most interested in. Here are some snippets by way of reminders. Blessed are those who have kept the flesh chaste, for they will become a temple of God. Blessed are those who are self-controlled, for God will speak to them. Blessed are those who have renounced this world, for they will be pleasing to God. Blessed are those who have wives as if they did not have them, for they will be the heirs of God. Blessed are the bodies of the virgins, for these will be pleasing to God and will not lose the reward for their chastity If (since!) this is not the main gospel message [...]

BDEhrman2025-09-10T13:12:34-04:00July 9th, 2025|Early Christian Writings (100-400 CE), Paul and His Letters, Sex and Sexuality in the Bible|

Paul and His Most Famous Woman Disciple
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Paul and His Most Famous Woman Disciple

Christian Apocrypha, Early Christian Writings (100-400 CE), Paul and His Letters

Paul and His Most Famous Woman Disciple

I have now finished my summaries and discussions of each of the thirteen Pauline letters, "In a Nutshell." In this long thread we have now covered 18 of the New Testament's 27 books, which, by my math, means we are two-thirds of the way through this thread. Nine more gems to go. I'd like to pause at this stage and provide a few other posts on Paul and his writings, specifically by talking a bit about Paul as found in early Christian writings outside the New Testament. I have a fuller discussion of the historical and legendary tales about Paul in my book Peter, Paul, and Mary Magdalene: The Followers of Jesus in History and Legend (Oxford University Press, 2006). This post and the next will contain excerpts discussing Paul and his female follower Thecla, one of the most famous early Christian women of all history (though widely forgotten today, she was virtually a household name throughout the Middle Ages.) ****************************** The Acts of Paul and Thecla One of the most popular legends about the [...]

BDEhrman2025-09-10T13:12:34-04:00July 8th, 2025|Christian Apocrypha, Early Christian Writings (100-400 CE), Paul and His Letters|

Should We Keep “Slaves” in the New Testament?

I’ve been talking about Paul’s view of slavery, in light of the book of Philemon; this seems to be a good time to talk about a very big issue connected with translating the New Testament from Greek into English. It may seem fairly straightforward, but in fact it is incredibly thorny: what English word is best to use for the Greek word that refers to a person who is owned by another and compelled (on every level) to do what the owner requires? It’s “slave,” right? How can it be complicated? Let me put it in a bigger picture. For a very long time I’ve been interested in the question of how to translate ancient texts, such as the Greek New Testament, into modern languages. Early in my scholarly career my interest was piqued by the work I did as a graduate student working as a research grunt for the translation committee for the New Revised Standard Version. My Doktorvater, Bruce Metzger, was the chair of the committee and he asked me, [...]

BDEhrman2025-09-10T13:12:34-04:00July 6th, 2025|Paul and His Letters, Public Forum, Reflections and Ruminations|

Paul’s Letter to Philemon: For Further Reading

Here is a list of readings on Philemon, all of which are relevant to all the undisputed Pauline epistles, with a couple of commentaries specifically on this significant, short letter. One benefit of serious commentaries is that they always begin by discussing major critical issues in understanding a book: authorship, date, historical context, major themes, disputed issues, and so on. ****************************** Aune, David. The New Testament in Its Literary Environment. Philadelphia: Westminster, 1987. Includes a superb discussion of the practices of letter writing in Greco-Roman antiquity as the social context for Paul’s epistles. Beker, J. Christiaan. Paul the Apostle: The Triumph of God in Life and Thought. Philadelphia: Fortress, 1980. A sophisticated and astute discussion of the apocalyptic character of Paul’s theology and its various forms of expression in different situations that the apostle confronted. For advanced students. Bruce, F. F. Apostle of the Heart Set Free. Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans, 1977. A full study of Paul’s life and teachings by a major evangelical Christian scholar. Dunn, James D. The Theology of Paul the Apostle. Grand Rapids, [...]

BDEhrman2025-09-10T13:12:34-04:00July 5th, 2025|Public Forum|

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